The modes of action of MARTX toxin effector domains

Many Gram-negative bacterial pathogens directly deliver numerous effector proteins from the bacterium to the host cell, thereby altering the target cell physiology. The already well-characterized effector delivery systems are type III, type IV, and type VI secretion systems. Multifunctional autoprocessing repeats-in-toxin (MARTX) toxins are another effector delivery platform employed by some genera of Gram-negative bacteria. These single polypeptide exotoxins possess up to five effector domains in a modular fashion in their central regions. Upon binding to the host cell plasma membrane, MARTX toxins form a pore using amino-and carboxyl-terminal repeat-containing arms and translocate the effector domains into the cells. Consequently, MARTX toxins affect the integrity of the host cells and often induce cell death. Thus, they have been characterized as crucial virulence factors of certain human pathogens. This review covers how each of the MARTX toxin effector domains exhibits cytopathic and/or cytotoxic activities in cells, with their structural features revealed recently. In addition, future directions for the comprehensive understanding of MARTX toxin-mediated pathogenesis are discussed.