Removal of ibuprofen by graphene-based nanoadsorbents in water: A review

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen are among the most frequently detected pharmaceutical contaminants in aquatic systems, and have been reported in rivers, lakes, and wastewater effluents across more than 60 countries. Even at trace levels, their persistence and biological activity pose significant risks to aquatic organisms and ecosystems. Conventional wastewater treatment plants are often incapable of completely removing ibuprofen, resulting in its continuous release and secondary contamination. This review evaluates the application of graphene and graphene oxide (GO)-based nanoadsorbents, including reduced GO and functionalized GO composites, as advanced materials for ibuprofen removal. Graphene derivatives provide large surface areas, tunable pore structures, and abundant oxygenated functional groups that promote π–π stacking, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic attraction with pharmaceuticals. Reported maximum adsorption capacities vary considerably depending on the modification. In this review, key factors influencing adsorption performance, such as pH, initial concentration, dosage, contact time, temperature, background ions, and natural organic matter were systematically analyzed. Additionally, adsorption isotherm and kinetic models were examined to enhance the understanding of the underlying adsorption mechanisms. Although graphene-based nanoadsorbents exhibit a remarkable potential for ibuprofen remediation, challenges related to aggregation, regeneration, reusability, and environmental safety remain. This review highlights both the current progress and research gaps, offering insights into future directions for the practical and sustainable application of GO-based nanoadsorbents in water treatment. Future work should prioritize validation in real wastewater matrices and fixed-bed/pilot-scale systems, together with immobilization or shaping strategies to enable reliable operation (e.g., reduced pressure drops) and robust separation/recovery, and life-cycle and ecotoxicological assessments to ensure safe and sustainable implementation.