Profiles of father involvement among unmarried Black fathers and child social–emotional functioning

This study examined patterns of father involvement among 2040 unmarried non-Hispanic Black fathers (M = 25.27 years; SD = 6.51 years) with low income, and their associations with young children's (age 3 years; 50.34% girls) social–emotional functioning. Latent profile analysis revealed four father involvement profiles: high involvement (50.60%); nonresident, moderate involvement (18.09%); highly engaged, but low cognitive stimulation (25.49%); and nonresident, very low involvement (3.82%). Children of highly involved Black fathers exhibited optimal social–emotional functioning compared to children of fathers in the other profiles. Children of fathers in the highly engaged, but low cognitive stimulation profile showed poorer social–emotional functioning. Our findings showed that Black fathering is a diverse experience with much heterogeneity, suggesting the need for fatherhood programs responsive to different fathering profiles.