Is air pollution a risk factor for early menopause?

Background: Ambient air pollution is a serious public health issue that may influence reproductive health, including fertility and menopause onset in women worldwide. Thus, understanding the risk factors associated with early menopause is crucial to inform women about potential health risks and guide public health interventions. Methods: We collected data from KHANES (The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) at the Korean Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Health and Welfare between 2010 and 2020. These data were linked with summary pollution data from AiMS-CREATE (AI-Machine Learning and Statistics Collaborative Research Ensemble for Air Pollution, Temperature, and All Types of Environmental Exposures) from 2002 to 2020. These summary data encapsulate the monthly average air pollution predictions for 226 si-gun-gu (cities, counties, and districts) in Korea. A total of 8506 participants who had experienced menopause (early menopause: 40–44 years, N = 341; normal menopause: ≥ 45 years, N = 8165) between 2002 and 2020 were included in the analysis. We employed survey logistic regression analyses to determine the associations between ambient air pollution and menopause after adjusting for covariates. Results: An association was observed between particulate matter 2.5 (PM_2.5) and early menopause (adjusted survey logistic regression (aOR): 1.26, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.21–1.31), between particulate matter 10 (PM₁₀) and early menopause (aOR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.14–1.20). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that exposure to ambient air pollution may contribute to the onset of menopause, emphasizing the importance of addressing air quality as a public health priority. This study highlights the need for further research to explore the underlying mechanisms and long-term health impacts of environmental factors associated with early menopause.